Monomers and polymers derived from natural phenols

ABSTRACT

Monomers, polymers and copolymers are provided that incorporate at least one naturally occurring phenolic compound, such as a plant phenol.

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/776,362 filed Mar. 11, 2013, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT RIGHTS

This invention was made with government support under ONR N00014-06-1-0952 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The government has certain rights in the invention.

BACKGROUND

Due to the finite supply of fossil resources and societies ever increasing interest in the use of renewable resources for energy and materials, there is a major need for new chemicals and materials derived from renewable resources. With regard to polymers, aromatic building blocks are tremendously important. For example, commodity polymers such as polycarbonate and polyethylene terephthalate are based on aromatic monomers. While many renewable resources such as plant oils, carbohydrates, and sugars are aliphatic, there are a number of phenols that can be obtained from renewable sources.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides novel monomers and polymers derived from natural phenols, as well as methods for producing the monomers and polymers. In one aspect, the invention provides a novel vinyl ether monomer. In one embodiment, the vinyl ether monomer has the structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl; R₄ is either —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group; and R is a substituted phenyl group.

In another aspect, the invention provides a polymer or copolymer that incorporates at least one vinyl ether monomer of the invention. The vinyl ether monomer is preferably formed from, or includes, at least one naturally occurring phenolic compound, or an analog or derivative thereof. In one embodiment, the polymer or copolymer contains, as a repeating unit, the structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl; R₄ is either —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group; and R is a substituted phenyl group.

The substituted phenyl group R can be a mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-substituted phenyl group. Preferably, at least one substituent of the phenyl group contains at least one reactive functional group. Examples of a reactive functional group include a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol; an aldehyde; a double bond; a triple bond; a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary amine; an ester; a ketone; an epoxide; a carboxylic acid; or any combination thereof. In some embodiments the reactive functional group includes an epoxide group, an acrylate-functional group, an alcohol group, or any combination thereof. In a preferred embodiment of the vinyl ether monomer of the invention, the phenyl group is derived from eugenol or isoeugenol. In another preferred embodiment, the phenyl group is derived from a phenolic compound obtained from lignocellulose.

A preferred polymer or copolymer includes, as a repeating unit, the structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are —H or -alkyl; R₄ is —O-alkylene- or absent; R₅ is either or both of CH₂—CH═CH₂ and/or CH═CH—CH₃. Advantageously, the phenyl group can be derived from a phenolic compound obtained from lignocellulose. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer or copolymer includes a polyvinyl ether, such as a polyvinyl ether that includes an alkylene vinyl ether as a repeating unit. Optionally, the polyvinyl ether is epoxidized. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer or copolymer contains a repeating unit derived from 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB). An example of a preferred polymer or copolymer is one that includes poly[4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene] (polyAMB).

In one embodiment, the copolymer of the invention can include at least one comonomer comprising an isobutyl vinyl ether, a cyclohexyl vinyl ether, a tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether, a penta(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether, or a combination thereof.

In another embodiment, the copolymer contains at least one comonomer comprising an electron deficient vinyl monomer, such as maleic anhydride. Optionally, the copolymer is produced by free radical polymerization. The copolymer may be an alternating copolymer.

Optionally, the polymer or copolymer contains a cross-linked siloxane.

Optionally, the polymer or copolymer of claim 8 has a polydispersity index of less than 1.5.

In another aspect, the invention includes a method for making the polymer or copolymer that includes polymerizing a vinyl ether monomer of the invention with at least one comonomer under conditions to form a polymer or copolymer. In one embodiment, the comonomer includes a vinyl ether monomer, such as a penta(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether (PEGEVE), a tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether (TEGEVE), a cyclohexyl vinyl ether (CHVE), an isobutyl vinyl ether, or any combination thereof.

In yet another aspect, the invention provides an article, coating, film, adhesive, elastomer, detergent, surfactant, composite, oil, gel or lubricant comprising the polymer or copolymer of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) spectra for 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB).

FIG. 2 shows a plot of molecular weight as a function of monomer conversion and as a function of polydispersity index (PDI).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

The present invention provides monomers, as well as polymers and copolymers that incorporate at least one monomer, which are formed from, or include, at least one naturally occurring phenolic compound, or an analog or derivative thereof. Also included in the invention are methods for making the monomers and polymers, and methods of using them to produce lubricating liquids such as lubricants, oils, and gels, as well as coatings, films, adhesives, elastomers, detergents, surfactants, composite materials, and the like. Articles, coatings, films, adhesives, elastomers, detergents, surfactants, composites, oils, gels and lubricants that include monomers or polymers of the invention, cured or uncured, as well as methods for making and using them, also provided by the invention.

The naturally occurring phenolic compound is preferably a phenolic compound that is found naturally in a plant. Such compounds are also known as plant phenolics or plant phenols. The phenolic compound used to make the monomer or polymer of the invention can be isolated from a plant or a plant material (or other living organism), or it can be chemically or enzymatically synthesized. Plant material includes material that is or was part of a plant, as well as material that is produced as a result of degradation of the plant or a plant part, for example by hydrolysis, proteolysis, or pyrolysis. Monomers and polymers that incorporate a phenolic compound isolated from a plant, plant material or other living organism make use of renewable resources and can thus be categorized as “green” products and technologies. While the naturally occurring phenolic compounds useful in the invention are commonly found in plants, suitable phenolic compounds can also be found in other living organisms such as microorganisms, including fungi, and also insects and mammals, for example.

A phenol includes a hydroxyl group (—OH) as a first ring substituent attached to the phenyl ring. The monomers of the present invention are synthesized via reaction at the phenolic hydroxyl/phenolate group. Phenols that are useful as starting materials in the synthesis of monomers according to the present invention preferably contain at least a second ring substituent that is, or contains, a reactive functional group. This reactive functional group is in addition to the hydroxyl group. The phenolic compounds useful in the invention can thus be characterized as substituted phenols. Ring substituents (in addition to the phenolic hydroxyl) can contain one or more reactive functional groups, including but not limited to: a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol; an aldehyde; a double bond (including but not limited to vinyl group or an allyl group); a triple bond; a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary amine; an ester; a ketone; an epoxide, and/or a carboxylic acid. A reactive functional group supplies a site that permits further modification or derivatization of the monomer, or the polymer into which it is incorporated. A functional group that can be derivatized in this manner, under suitable or defined reaction conditions, is referred to herein as a reactive functional group.

Optionally, a substituted phenol includes two or more additional ring substituents (i.e., substituents at two or more positions on the ring in addition to the phenolic hydroxyl, for example, second and third substituents). Each additional ring substituent optionally, and independently, contains a reactive functional group, which can be the same or different. Alternatively or in addition, an additional ring substituent is optionally a multifunctional substituent. A multifunctional substituent optionally contains more than one reactive functional group, such as both a double bond and a hydroxyl, or both a double bond and an aldehyde. A phenolic compound that contains at least one reactive functional group in addition to the phenolic hydroxyl is referred to herein as a “functionalized” phenolic compound or a “functionalized” phenol, and is a preferred starting material for synthesizing the monomer of the invention. It should be understood that the reactive functional group(s) can be part or the naturally occurring phenol, or can be added chemically or enzymatically.

Plant Phenols

Phenolic compounds for use as starting materials in the synthesis of the monomers of the invention can be isolated from any suitable plant or plant material. As a nonlimiting example, the phenolic compounds eugenol and isoeugenol, which contain a reactive allyl group and a reactive disubstituted (—C═C—) double bond, respectively, are suitable starting materials that can be isolated from clove oil.

Eugenol and isoeugenol can also be obtained as products of the degradation of lignin, for example, by pyrolysis. More generally, many suitable plant phenols can be obtained from biomass such as lignocellulose, or degradation products thereof, including but not limited to p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, sinapyl alcohol, 4-vinylguaiacol, 4-propenylsyringol, vanillin, vanillic acid, acetoguaiacone, coniferaldehyde and sinapaldehyde. Plant phenols, or a phenolic fraction, can be recovered from bio-oils such as pyrolysis oil and used as starting material in the reaction to yield the monomers of the invention.

Monomers

In one embodiment, the monomer of the invention is a functionalized vinyl ether monomer having the following general structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl, preferably H or CH₃; R₄ is either —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group, preferably an alkylene, that functions as a spacer between the vinyl ether and the phenyl group, R; and wherein R is a substituted phenyl group derived from a phenolic compound, preferably a plant phenol, more preferably a functionalized plant phenol. R is a mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-substituted phenyl group; in other words, the oxygen from the phenolic hydroxyl is at ring position C-1, and the phenyl ring is substituted at one or more of ring positions C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5 and/or C-6. At least one substituent of the phenyl ring contains at least one reactive functional group such as, without limitation, a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol; an aldehyde; a double bond (including but not limited to a vinyl group or an allyl group); a triple bond; a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary amine; an ester; a ketone; an epoxide, and/or a carboxylic acid. As noted herein, a ring substituent can be monofunctional or multifunctional.

A vinyl ether monomer of the invention that contains a functionalized phenolic constituent can be synthesized by reacting a vinyl ether (or a vinyl acetate) with the phenolate of a functionalized phenol to yield a functionalized vinyl ether monomer. Any vinyl ether is suitable, or can be readily made suitable, for reaction with the functionalized phenol, as desired for the intended application. In order to react with the phenolic hydroxyl of the functionalized phenol, the vinyl ether reactant preferably contains an electrophilic group or region that is susceptible to nucleophilic attack by the phenolic hydroxyl or its phenolate anion. The vinyl ether reactant can be, for example, an alkyl halide, such as chloroethyl vinyl ether or iodoethyl vinyl ether, and the reaction can take place via a nucleophilic displacement reaction under basic conditions. The base can be potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, or any convenient base. An example of a nucleophilic substitution reaction, which shows a reaction between eugenol and iodoethyl vinyl ether to form an allyl-functionalized vinyl ether monomer (in this embodiment, 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene, “AMB”), is as follows:

The syntheses of some other illustrative functionalized monomers incorporating various plant phenols include the following:

Plant phenols with substituents that have primary alcohols may need to be protected at the primary alcohol prior to the polymerization reaction.

Commonly available hydroxyl-containing vinyl ethers (i.e., hydroxy vinyl ethers), such as, without limitation, an alkylene glycol monovinyl ether exemplified by ethylene glycol monovinyl ether (also known as hydroxyethyl vinyl ether), propylene glycol monovinyl ether (also known as hydroxypropyl vinyl ether), butylene glycol monovinyl ether (also known as hydroxybutyl vinyl ether), tri(ethylene glycol)monovinyl ether (TEGVE), pentaethylene glycol monovinyl ether (PEGVE), can also be utilized as reactants to form the functionalized phenol-containing vinyl ether monomers of the invention, provided the vinyl ether reactant is first modified to derivatize a hydroxyl group (preferably a primary hydroxyl group) so that it contains or becomes a leaving group, thereby making the vinyl ether reactant susceptible to nucleophilic attack by the phenolate anion of the functionalized phenol. For example, the hydroxyl group of a hydroxy vinyl ether reactant, such as hydroxybutyl vinyl ether or hydroxyethyl vinyl ether, can be tosylated, after which the tosylate is displaced by nucleophilic attack of the phenolate anion, for example, of eugenol. Any convenient process can be used to convert the functionalized phenol into a vinyl ether monomer; for example, vinylation can be accomplished using acetylene. Other suitable vinyl ethers that can be reacted with the functionalized phenol to yield a functionalized monomer of the invention are well known to the art. Some are described, for example, in Chisholm et al., “Polymers Derived from Plant Oil,” US Pat. Pub. 2012-0316309-A1, published Dec. 13, 2012.

When vinyl acetate is reacted with a functionalized phenol, the resulting vinyl ether monomer has the structure R—O—CH═CH₂ where R is derived from the phenolic compound. An exemplary synthesis of an ethylenically unsaturated functionalized monomer made using isoeugenol and vinyl acetate reactants is as follows:

If the vinyl acetate is substituted at the vinyl group, the resulting compound will also be substituted at the vinyl ether group. Vinyl acetate or a substituted vinyl acetate can be used as a reactant in order to produce the functionalized vinyl ether monomer of the invention.

Polymers

The invention includes polymers, including homopolymers and copolymers, formed using the functionalized monomers of the invention. Polymers and copolymers include statistical or random copolymers, as well as copolymers with well-defined molecular architectures such as block copolymers, alternating copolymer, star polymers, telechelic polymers, and graft copolymers. A preferred polymer or copolymer is a polyvinyl ether (PVE). In the polymer of the invention, the functionalized pendent phenolic constituent advantageously provides a useful site for derivatization and/or cross-linking.

A polymer or copolymer of the invention contains a monomeric unit derived from the monomers of the invention. The invention encompasses polymers with at least one repeating unit having the following structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl, preferably H or CH₃; R₄ is either —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group, preferably an alkylene, that functions as a spacer between the vinyl ether and the phenyl group, R; and wherein R is a substituted phenyl group derived from a phenolic compound, preferably a plant phenol, more preferably a functionalized plant phenol. R is a mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-substituted phenyl group; in other words, the oxygen from the phenolic hydroxyl is at ring position C-1, and the phenyl ring is substituted at one or more of ring positions C-2, C-3, C-4, C-5 and/or C-6. At least one substituent of the phenyl ring contains at least one reactive functional group such as, without limitation, a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol; an aldehyde; a double bond (including but not limited to a vinyl group or an allyl group); a triple bond; a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary amine; an ester; a ketone; an epoxide, and/or a carboxylic acid. As noted herein, a ring substituent can be monofunctional or multifunctional. A multifunctional ring substituent optionally contains more than one reactive functional group, such as both a double bond and a hydroxyl, or both a double bond and an aldehyde. A multifunctional ring substituent thus allows for the presence of more than one functional group at a single site on the ring. For example, p-coumaryl has a multifunctional ring substituent, namely, a vinyl and a hydroxyl group within the same ring substituent.

An exemplary polymer or copolymer, which incorporates a eugenol and/or isoeugenol-derived vinyl ether monomer, has at least one repeating unit having the following structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl, preferably H or CH₃; R₄ is —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group, preferably an alkylene, that functions as a spacer between the vinyl ether and the phenyl group; and R₅ is either CH₂—CH═CH₂ or CH═CH—CH₃ or a mixture of the two. The R₅ group, which in this embodiment is derived from eugenol and/or isoeugenol, contains a reactive functionality (in this embodiment, a double bond) that allows the polymer to be derivatized using know chemical derivatization methods such as those illustrated in Example I. Surprisingly, it was found that polymerization processes used to produce the polymers of the invention exclusively consume the vinyl ether double bond. Unsaturated ring substituents other than the vinyl ether group, such as an allyl group or vinyl group, are preserved during the polymerization process. For example, in the case of eugenol and isoeugenol, the allyl group of eugenol constituent or the disubstituted double bond (—C═C—) of isoeugenol constituent does not participate in the polymerization reaction, and that polymerization proceeds instead exclusively or almost exclusively through the vinyl ether double bond on the eugenol/isoeugenol-functionalized vinyl ether monomer. This is highly advantageous as it allows the pendant eugenol/isoeugenol group to serve as the site for further derivatization of the polymer or copolymer, for example, by epoxidation as shown herein.

In one embodiment, the polymer or copolymer is the product of a carbocationic polymerization reaction in which the polymer molecular weight increases linearly or substantially linearly with monomer conversion, as described in Chisholm et al., “Polymers Derived from Plant Oil,” US Pat. Pub. 2012-0316309-A1, published Dec. 13, 2012. In some embodiments, a plot of molecular weight as a function of monomer conversion is approximately linear. One example of this type of carbocationic polymerization reaction is a “living” or controlled carbocationic polymerization. A “living” polymerization is polymerization that occurs substantially without termination or chain transfer reactions resulting in the ability to produce polymers with controlled molecular weight and polymers and potentially copolymers with well-defined molecular architectures such as block copolymers, alternating copolymers, star polymers, telechelic polymers, and graft copolymers. A Lewis base, such as methyl acetate or methyl chloroacetate, is preferably included in the polymerization reaction.

In another embodiment, the polymer or copolymer is the product of a free radical polymerization. Optionally the resulting copolymer is an alternating copolymer. Optionally, the polymer has a polydispersity index of less than 1.5.

In another embodiment, the polymer or copolymer includes a plurality of monomers, such that for at least one of the plurality of monomers, R is independently a phenyl group derived from a renewable resource such as a plant or plant material.

One example of a useful copolymer is a copolymer containing at least one functionalized vinyl ether monomer as described herein, and at least one polyalkylene glycol monovinyl ether comonomer, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) ethyl vinyl ether (VEPEG). The resulting copolymer is amphiphilic, further expanding its industrial utility. Other examples of useful copolymers are those containing at least one functionalized vinyl ether monomer as described herein, and tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether; or copolymers formed from copolymerization of at least one functionalized vinyl ether monomer of the invention and at least one styrene monomer. More generally, exemplary copolymers can include repeating units derived from any of the vinyl ether reactants described herein, including without limitation, alkylene glycol alkyl vinyl ethers, exemplified by ethylene glycol ethyl vinyl ether, propylene glycol ethyl vinyl ether, tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether (TEGEVE), tetra(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether, penta(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether (PEGEVE), ethylene glycol methyl vinyl ether, propylene glycol methyl vinyl ether, tri(ethylene glycol) methyl vinyl ether (TEGMVE), tetra(ethylene glycol) methyl vinyl ether, penta(ethylene glycol) methyl vinyl ether, cyclohexyl vinyl ether (CHVE), isobutyl vinyl ether, methyl vinyl ether, ethyl vinyl ether, propyl vinyl ether, 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether, octyl vinyl ether, t-butyl vinyl ether, n-butyl vinyl ether, and the like. It should be noted that tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether is sometimes referred to as triethylene glycol ethyl vinyl ether, penta(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether is sometimes referred to as pentaethylene glycol ethyl vinyl ether, and so on.

In one embodiment of the copolymer of the invention, the vinyl ether comonomer is hydrophilic. Incorporation of a hydrophilic comonomer is useful, for example, in instances where higher water and oxygen transmission rates are desired without sacrificing basic mechanical or physical properties of the polymer backbone. Examples of hydrophilic comonomers include tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether and penta(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether.

Repeating units derived from other renewable resources can also be used to form a copolymer of the invention. For example, a functionalized vinyl ether monomer of the invention can be copolymerized with plant oil-derived vinyl ethers such as vinyl ethers of soybean oil or corn oil fatty acid esters (VESFA and VECFA, respectively), and/or 2-(vinyloxy)ethyl soyate (2-VOES), as described below and in Chisholm et al., “Polymers Derived from Plant Oil,” US Pat. Pub. 2012-0316309-A1, published Dec. 13, 2012.

The copolymer of the invention is not limited by the comonomer that can be copolymerized with the vinyl ether monomers of the invention; examples of other comonomers that can be copolymerized with the vinylether monomers described herein can be found in Aoshima et al., Chem Rev 2009, 109, 5245-5287. More generally, any comonomer that imparts the desired properties to the resulting copolymer can be incorporated into the copolymer of the invention.

Copolymerization reactions can be using any suitable copolymerization technique. For example, carbocationic polymerization can be used, as described in Chisholm et al., “Polymers Derived from Plant Oil,” US Pat. Pub. 2012-0316309-A1, published Dec. 13, 2012. Another example of a polymerization reaction method that can be used is free radical polymerization. For example, the vinyl ether monomers of the invention can be copolymerized with other vinyl monomers that are electron deficient, that is, which possess strongly electron withdrawing groups, such as an anhydride, e.g. maleic anyhydride, or a nitrile, such as acrylonitrile, or fluoro, such as chlorotrifluoroethylene, using free radical polymerization. Monomers with strongly electron withdrawing groups are known to the art and further exemplified in D. Braun and F. Hu, “Polymers from non-homopolymerizable monomers by free radical processes,” Prog. Polymer Sci. (2006) 31, 239-276.

See, e.g., Chisholm et al., “Polymers Derived from Plant Oil,” US Pat. Pub. 2012-0316309-A1, published Dec. 13, 2012, for exemplary methods of synthesis of the copolymers of the invention. The invention is not, however, intended to be limited by the method of polymerization or copolymerization used to form the polymer or copolymer.

The molecular weight distribution (MWD, also known as the polydispersity index, PDI) for the polymer of the invention is typically less than 2 and can be less than 1.8, less than 1.5, and is preferably less than 1.4. Thus, in one embodiment, the polymer of the invention has a PDI of less than 2.0, less than 1.9, less than 1.8, less than 1.7, less than 1.6, less than 1.5, less than 1.4, less than 1.3, less than 1.2, or less than 1.1. In another embodiment, the polymer of the invention has a PDI of between 1.1 and 1.6, more preferably between 1.2 and 1.4.

The polymers and or copolymers of the invention can be cross-linked or non-crosslinked. Advantageously, the reactive functional groups on the phenolic constituent can be employed to cross-link the polymer to produce, for example, useful thermoset networks.

Derivatization of the Pendant Phenolic Constituent

The monomer or polymer of the invention can be derivatized or activated by reacting the reactive functional group on the phenolic constituent with a selected reactant to achieve a desired property. Typically, derivatization or activation of the reactive functional group is performed subsequent to polymerization, but it may be performed prior to or during polymerization. The invention includes polymers (and monomers) that have been activated by epoxidation, as well as acrylate-functional and polyol functional polymers synthesized using, for example, an epoxy-functional intermediate. Thus, the monomer or polymer can be chemically treated, altered or derivatized for further use according to the desired application, for example by epoxidation, acrylation, and other chemical reactions to produce epoxidized derivatives, acrylates, polyols and the like. Treatment may or may not involve polymer cross-linking.

Exemplary derivatizations of polymers derived from eugenol, wherein the reactive functional group present on the phenolic constituent is an allyl group, are shown below:

These exemplary derivatizations include epoxidation, hydrosilylation, maleation through the ene reaction, sulfide formation through the thiol-ene reaction, amination through epoxide ring-opening with an amine, etherification through epoxide ring-opening reactions with an alcohol, hydroxylation through epoxide hydrolysis, and so on. In some embodiments, monomers may be derivatized prior to polymerization. However, derivatization after polymerization is preferred because some of the functionalities added by derivatization, such as epoxide or hydroxyl, can react or interfere with the polymerization process.

Epoxidized polymers or copolymers (also referred to as epoxy-functional or epoxide-functional) are well-suited for use to produce curable coating compositions. The epoxidized coating composition can be cured using radiation e.g., UV-curing (e.g., via cationic photopolymerization), using an amine curing agent, using an anhydride-functional curing agent and optionally a tertiary amine catalyst, acid catalyst, or any suitable curing agent or method. Surface coatings can thus be readily generated from the epoxidized polymer or further derivatives thereof.

An activated epoxide intermediate can be further derivatized, for example, by reaction with a primary or secondary amine or alcohol, a carboxylic acid, aldehyde, carbon dioxide, and so on. For example, incorporation of acrylate groups or alcohol groups typically first involves the generation of an epoxide intermediate. The double bonds can be derivatized using epoxidation, Diels-Alder chemistry, or thiol-ene chemistry. Derivatives such as epoxy-functional, acrylate-functional and alcohol-functional (polyol) polymers are likewise included in the invention.

In another embodiment, the invention provides an acrylate-functional polymer or copolymer. For example, an epoxidized polymer or copolymer of the invention can be reacted with acrylic acid to yield an acrylate-functional polymer. The acrylated polymer can be cured, for example using radiation (e.g., UV), and a free-radical photoinitiator, such as 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone, heat and a free-radical thermal initiator, such as a peroxide or azo compound, or heat and a di- or multi-functional amine (Michael addition). In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a polyol polymer or copolymer. For example, an epoxidized polymer or copolymer of the invention can be subjected to a ring-opening reaction to produce a polyol, which finds use in the preparation of, for example, polyurethanes, alkyd resins, and the like.

In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a silicon-containing polymer or copolymer. A polymer or copolymer of the invention can be silylated via hydrosilylation at a double bond on the pendant phenolic constituent, for example. Silylation can be complete, or partial. If partial, non-silylated double bonds are available for further derivatization or crosslinking. For example, an incompletely silylated polymer or copolymer of the invention can be blended with siloxane and cured with a hydride-functional siloxane, yielding a modified, cross-linked siloxane coating. Silylated coatings have many uses, such as in marine applications as anti-fouling agents, or in medical applications.

The utility of these compositions largely stems from the wide variety of pendent functional groups that can be incorporated into the polymer to enable a variety of applications including coatings, composites, and plastics. In addition, the polymers of the invention can have a high renewable content, since plant phenolics, such as eugenol and/or iso-eugenol, can be used to produce the polymers.

Plant oil-based materials are currently commercially available for a large number on non-food applications, such as lubricants, hydraulic fluids, coatings, drying agents, plastics, composites, insulators, soaps, candles, cosmetics, etc. Essentially, and importantly, the phenolic-derived polymers of the invention, such as polymers derived from eugenol and isoeugenol, can be used for any application which currently utilizes a renewable polymer, such as a polymer derived from soybean oil. Due to the renewable aspect of plant derivatives, many industries are trying to use more chemicals from renewable sources. The polymers of the invention can be used in any and all of these applications. Also included are liquids and solids, including articles of manufacture of any type, that contain monomers or polymers as described herein, including lubricating and hydraulic fluids, gels, plastics, composites, elastomers, polyurethanes, additives, adhesives and the like.

As used herein, the terms “aliphatic” or “aliphatic group” mean a saturated or unsaturated linear (i.e., straight chain), cyclic, or branched hydrocarbon group. The hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon group can be substituted or unsubstituted. The term “aliphatic” encompasses monovalent and divalent aliphatic groups, including alkyl (e.g., —CH₃) (or alkylene if within a chain such as —CH₂—), alkenyl (or alkenylene if within a chain), and alkynyl (or alkynylene if within a chain) groups, as well as substituted forms thereof, for example.

The terms “alkyl” or “alkyl group” mean a saturated linear or branched hydrocarbon group including, for example, methyl, ethyl, isopropyl, t-butyl, amyl, heptyl, dodecyl, octadecyl, amyl, 2-ethylhexyl, and the like, as well as their divalent counterparts. “Alkyl” and “alkylene” are also meant to include substituted alkyls and alkylenes. Suitable substituents include aryl groups (which may themselves be substituted), as in the case where the “alkyl” is a phenyl-substituted methyl group (e.g., a benzyl moiety). Other suitable substituents include heterocyclic rings (saturated or unsaturated and optionally substituted), hydroxy groups, alkoxy groups (which is meant to include aryloxy groups (e.g., phenoxy groups)), thiol groups, alkylthio groups, arylthio groups, amine groups (which is meant to include unsubstituted, monosubstituted, or disubstituted (e.g., with aryl or alkyl groups) amine groups), carboxylic acid groups (which is meant to include COOH groups as well as carboxylic acid derivatives, e.g., carboxylic acid esters, amides, etc.), phosphine groups, sulfonic acid groups, halogen atoms (e.g., F, Cl, Br, and I), and the like. Further, alkyl groups bearing one or more alkenyl or alkynyl substituents (e.g., a methyl group itself substituted with a prop-1-en-1-yl group to produce a but-2-en-1-yl substituent or a methyl group itself substituted with a vinyl group to produce an allyl substituent) are meant to be included in the meaning of “alkyl.”

The terms “alkenyl” or “alkenyl group: mean an unsaturated, linear or branched monovalent or divalent hydrocarbon group with one or more olefinically unsaturated groups (i.e., carbon-carbon double bonds), such as a vinyl group. Alkenyl groups include, for example, ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, 1-methyl-2-buten-1-yl, and the like.

The term “alkynyl group” means an unsaturated, linear or branched monovalent or divalent hydrocarbon group with one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds. Representative alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethynyl, 2-propynyl (propargyl), 1-propynyl, and the like.

The term “aliphatic” also encompasses monovalent or divalent cyclic hydrocarbons such as cycloaliphatic groups or heterocyclic groups. The term “cycloaliphatic” refers to a cyclic or polycyclic hydrocarbon group, which may have properties resembling those of linear aliphatic groups. Cycloaliphatic groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexenyl, cycloheptyl, cycloheptenyl, cyclooctyl, cyclooctenyl, norbornyl, adamantyl, and cyclooctadienyl. The term “cycloaliphatic” also includes aliphatic rings that are fused to one or more aromatic or nonaromatic rings, such as decahydronaphthyl or tetrahydronaphthyl, where the radical or point of attachment is on the aliphatic ring. The term “heterocyclic group” means a cyclic or polycyclic closed ring hydrocarbon in which one or more of the atoms in the ring is an element other than carbon (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, etc.).

Unless otherwise specified, an aliphatic group can contain 1 or 2 or 3 or 4, and so on, up to 38 or 39 or 40 carbon atoms; that is, 1 to 40 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1 to 20 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 2 to 20 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1 to 12 carbon atoms, or 1 to 8 carbon atoms, or 1 to 6 carbon atoms, 1 to 5 carbon atoms, 1 to 4 carbon atoms, 1 to 3 carbon atoms, or 1 to 2 carbons atoms. Exemplary aliphatic groups include, but are not limited to, linear or branched alkyl, alkylene, alkenyl, and alkynyl groups, and hybrids thereof such as (cycloalkyl)alkyl, (cycloalkenyl)alkyl or (cycloalkyl)alkenyl.

The term “unsaturated”, as used herein, means that a moiety has one or more double or triple bonds.

An aliphatic group may be unsubstituted, or optionally substituted with one or more substituents. “Substituted” means that one or more hydrogens of the designated moiety are replaced with a suitable substituent. Unless otherwise indicated, an “optionally substituted” group may have a suitable substituent at each substitutable position of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure may be substituted with more than one substituent selected from a specified group, the substituent may be either the same or different at every position. Combinations of substituents envisioned by this invention are preferably those that result in the formation of stable or chemically feasible compounds. The term “stable”, as used herein, refers to compounds that are not substantially altered when subjected to conditions to allow for their production, detection, and, in certain embodiments, their recovery, purification, and use for one or more of the purposes disclosed herein.

Suitable substituents include, but are not limited to, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, aroyl, halo (e.g., F, Cl, Br and I), hydroxy, oxo, nitro, alkoxy, amino, amido, imino, azido, mercapto, acyl, carbamoyl, carboxy, carboxamido, amidino, guanidino, thiol, alkylthiol, arylthio, sulfonyl, sulfinyl, sulfonamido, phosphine, formyl, cyano, and ureido groups.

The term “alkoxy”, as used herein refers to an alkyl group, as previously defined, attached to the parent molecule through an oxygen atom. Examples of alkoxy, include but are not limited to, methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, isopropoxy, n-butoxy, tert-butoxy, neopentoxy, and n-hexoxy.

The term “acyl”, as used herein, refers to a carbonyl-containing functionality, e.g., —C(═O)R′, wherein R′ is hydrogen or an optionally substituted aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aryl, heteroaryl group, or is a substituted (e.g., with hydrogen or aliphatic, heteroaliphatic, aryl, or heteroaryl moieties) oxygen or nitrogen containing functionality (e.g., forming a carboxylic acid, ester, or amide functionality). The term “acyloxy”, as used here, refers to an acyl group attached to the parent molecule through an oxygen atom.

The terms “aromatic,” “aromatic group,” “aryl” and “aryl group” mean a mono- or polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon group. These hydrocarbon groups may be substituted with heteroatoms, which can be in the form of functional groups. The term “aromatic” or “aryl” used alone or as part of a larger moiety as in “aromatic hydrocarbon,” “aralkyl,” “aralkoxy”, or “aryloxyalkyl”, refers to monocyclic and polycyclic ring systems having a total of five to 20 ring members, wherein at least one ring in the system is aromatic and wherein each ring in the system contains three to twelve ring members. The term “aryl” may be used interchangeably with the term “aryl ring” or “aromatic ring.” In certain embodiments of the present invention, “aryl” refers to an aromatic ring system which includes, but is not limited to, phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, anthracyl and the like, which may bear one or more substituents. Also included within the scope of the term “aryl”, as it is used herein, is a group in which an aromatic ring is fused to one or more additional rings, such as benzofuranyl, indanyl, phthalimidyl, naphthimidyl, phenantriidinyl, or tetrahydronaphthyl, and the like.

In describing substituents, the term “radical” is sometimes used. In this context, “radical” means a moiety or functional group having an available position for attachment to the structure on which the substituent is bound. In general the point of attachment would bear a hydrogen atom if the substituent were an independent neutral molecule rather than a substituent.

The term “heteroatom” means an element other than carbon (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, chlorine, etc.). A “hetero-” moiety as described herein, such as a heteroaliphatic group, a heterocyclic group and the like, refers to a moiety having, in place of one or more carbon atoms, a heteroatom independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. Examples of saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic groups include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, pyrrolidinyl, pyrrolidonyl, piperidinyl, pyrrolinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, oxazolidinyl, piperazinyl, dioxanyl, dioxolanyl, diazepinyl, oxazepinyl, thiazepinyl, morpholinyl, and quinuclidinyl. The terms “heterocycle”, “heterocyclyl”, “heterocyclyl ring”, “heterocyclic group”, “heterocyclic moiety”, and “heterocyclic radical”, are used interchangeably herein, and also include groups in which a heterocyclyl ring is fused to one or more aryl, heteroaryl, or cycloaliphatic rings, such as indolinyl, 3H-indolyl, chromanyl, phenanthridinyl, or tetrahydroquinolinyl, where the radical or point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring. A heterocyclyl group may be mono- or bicyclic. The term “heterocyclylalkyl” refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heterocyclyl, wherein the alkyl and heterocyclyl portions independently are optionally substituted.

Unless otherwise specified, “a,” “an,” “the,” and “at least one” are used interchangeably and mean one or more than one.

EXAMPLES

The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. It is to be understood that the particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth herein.

Example 1 Synthesis of 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB) using 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether

4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB) was synthesized as illustrated in the scheme below.

A detailed description of the synthesis is as follows: 100.65 g of 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether (TCI Chemicals, >97%), 200.16 g of sodium iodide (Alfa Aesar, 99+%), and 730 g of dry acetone were combined in a 2-liter, 3-neck, round-bottom flask and heated at a temperature of 60° C. for 24 hours. Next, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with 600 ml of diethyl ether. The organic layer was washed thrice with deionized water and dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The colorless product was recovered by vacuum stripping of the diethyl ether and 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether at a temperature of 40° C. and a pressure of 50 mmHg. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (H¹ NMR) was used to confirm the production of 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether. The product was a mixture of 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether and 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether containing 90 mole percentage of 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether. ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 6.44 ppm (q, 1H, OCH═C), 4.19, 4.05 ppm (dd, 2H, CH ₂═C), 3.95 ppm (t, 2H, OCH ₇), 3.3 ppm (t, 2H, CH ₂I).

20 g of the 90% pure 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether obtained according to the procedure described above was combined with 100 ml of N,N-dimethylformamide (VWR, 99.8%), 22.4 g of eugenol (Sigma-Aldrich, 99%), and 9 g of potassium hydroxide (Sigma-Aldrich, reagent grade, 90%, flakes) in a 1000 ml round-bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser. The solution produced was stirred at room temperature for 19 hours. After this period, 75 ml of methylene chloride was added to the vessel. Next, the solution was transferred to a reparatory funnel and washed three times with 40 ml of 2N potassium hydroxide in deionized (DI) water to remove excess eugenol. After washing with potassium hydroxide, the organic layer was washed multiple times with DI water until the aqueous layer was neutral pH as indicated by litmus paper. Finally, the organic layer was dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate and the product isolated by vacuum stripping volatiles at 30° C. and a pressure of 5 millibar for 12 hours. ¹H NMR was used to confirm the production of AMB: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 6.5 ppm (q, 1H, OCH═C), 4.22 ppm-4.25 ppm (m, 2H, CH ₂═C—O), 4.0 ppm-4.2 ppm (m, 4H, CH ₂—CH₂), 3.3 ppm (d, 2H, C═C—CH ₂), 5.9 ppm (m, 1H, C═CH—C), 5.1 (m, 2H, CH ₂═C—C), 3.8 ppm (s, 3H, CH ₃), 6.7 ppm, 6.9 ppm (m, 3H, Ar—H).

AMB was also produced using a different process in which 100 ml of methanol was used in place of N,N-dimethylformamide and the reaction time and temperature increased to 48 hours and 60° C., respectively. As indicated by ¹H NMR, this process also yielded the desired product, AMB, but the color of the product was lighter than that obtained using DMF as the reaction solvent.

Example 2 Synthesis of 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene using 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether

Example 1 involved the conversion of 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether to 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether during the synthesis of AMB. This example demonstrates that AMB can be produced directly from 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether. 7 g of 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether, 16.18 g of eugenol, 5.23 g of potassium hydroxide, and 35 ml of N,N-dimethylformamide were combined in a 250 ml, 2-neck, round-bottom flask and heated at a temperature of 80° C. for 24 hours. Next, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with 30 ml of methylene chloride. The methylene chloride was washed three times with 30 ml of 2N potassium hydroxide solution in DI water to remove the excess eugenol. Next, the organic layer was washed multiple times with DI water until the aqueous layer was at neutral pH as indicated with litmus paper and then dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The product was isolated by after evaporation of volatiles at a temperature of 30° C. and a pressure of 5 millibar for 12 hours. Successful production of AMB was determined using ¹H NMR.

Example 3 Synthesis and Characterization of Poly[4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene] (polyAMB)

Poly[4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene] (polyAMB) was synthesized as follows: Toluene and methyl acetate (MAc, Sigma-Aldrich, >99%) were distilled over calcium hydride just prior use. AMB was dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate just before use. 1-isobutoxyethyl acetate (IBEA) was synthesized and dried according to the procedure described by Aoshima and Higashimura [Aoshima, S.; Higashimura, T., “Living cationic polymerization of vinyl monomers by organoaluminum halides. 3. Living polymerization of isobutyl vinyl ether by ethyldichloroaluminum in the presence of ester additives.” Macromolecules 1989, 22 (3), 1009-13]. Ethyl aluminum sesquichloride (97%, Sigma-Aldrich) was diluted with dry toluene to produce a 25 weight percent solution. 100 g of AMB, 68.3 mg of IBEA, 15.82 g of MAc and 525 g of dry toluene were combined in a dry 1000 ml, 2-liter, round-bottom flask fitted with an overhead stirrer. The reaction mixture was cooled to 0° C. by submerging the reaction vessel into a heptane bath inside a dry box. The polymerization was initiated by the addition of 5.28 g of the ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution (25 wt. % in toluene). The reaction was terminated after 8 hours by the addition of 1000 ml of chilled methanol which caused the polymer to precipitate. The polymer was isolated and washed multiple times with methanol. The purified polymer was dried under vacuum overnight at a temperature of 30° C.

Polymer molecular weight was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. The number-average molecular weight and molecular weight distribution of the polyAMB expressed relative to polystyrene standards was 13,680 g/mole and 1.34, respectively. The thermal properties of the polymer were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments) by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 50° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 50° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). The thermogram obtained from the 2^(nd) heat showed a glass transition at 3.3° C.

Example 4 Further Characterization of PolyAMB Polymerization

Polymerization kinetics were determined by carrying out multiple polymerizations inside a glove box at 0° C. using a series of dry 40 ml vials. Toluene, MAc, and methyl chloroacetate, MCAc (Sigma-Aldrich, 99%) were distilled over calcium hydride before use. In each vial, toluene, IBEA, AMB, and either MAc or MCAc were combined and the solution cooled to 0° C. Each polymerization was initiated by the addition of a 25 weight percent solution of ethyl aluminum sesquichloride solution in toluene. Table I lists the chemical composition of each polymerization. Aliquots of known weight were withdrawn at predetermined time intervals and terminated by the addition of 5 ml of methanol, which caused the polymer to precipitate. The polymer was isolated and washed with methanol using centrifugation. Prior to measuring polymer yield, all volatiles were removed under vacuum.

TABLE I Chemical composition of AMB polymerizations used to determine polymerization kinetics. Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Polymerization AMB IBEA MAc MCAc toluene Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5) Identification (g) (mg) (mg) (g) (g) solution (μl) PolyAMB/1IBEA/100MAc 2 6.8 316 0 10.5 117 PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MAc 2 6.8 791 0 10.5 117 PolyAMB/0IBEA/250MAc 2 0 791 0 10.5 117 PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MCAc 2 6.8 0 1.16 10.5 117 [M]_(o) and [M]_(t) represent the initial concentration and the concentration at time (t) of the monomer (i.e. AMB) where [M]_(t) was calculated from weight of polyAMB produced at time t. For each polymerization, a plot of ln([M]_(o)/[M]_(t)) as a function of polymerization time yielded a straight line that passed through the origin. The slope and correlation coefficient for each plot generated from each polymerization are listed in Tables II-V. From the slope of each straight line, the polymerization rate constant was calculated.

TABLE II Data used to generate the plot of ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} as a function of polymerization time for PolyAMB/1IBEA/100MAc. Polymerization time Correlation (min) ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} Slope coefficient 0 0 0.07 0.92 1.75 0.31 3.9 0.48 7.83 0.68 15.47 1.11 23.0 1.48

TABLE III Data used to generate the plot of ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} as a function of polymerization time for PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MAc. Polymerization time Correlation (min) ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} Slope coefficient 0 0 0.046 0.98 12 0.31 19 0.44 37 0.70 76 1.19 108 1.53 142 1.90 203 2.23

TABLE IV Data used to generate the plot of ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} as a function of polymerization time for PolyAMB/0IBEA/250MAc. Polymerization time Correlation (min) ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} Slope coefficient 0 0 0.013 0.96 10 0.270978 19 0.344708 36 0.579753 76 1.078878 108 1.430755 142 1.602589

TABLE V Data used to generate the plot of ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} as a function of polymerization time for PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MCAc. Polymerization time Correlation (min) ln{[M]_(o)/[M]_(t)} Slope coefficient 0 0 — — 2.25 2.25 2.35 2.35 2.45 2.45 2.34 2.34 Polymer molecular weight and molecular weight distribution was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. Tables VI to IX list the percent monomer conversion, number-average molecular weight relative to polystyrene standards, and molecular weight distribution data as a function of polymerization time for each of the four polymerizations. As illustrated in Table IX, the polymerization from PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MCAc was too fast to adequately generate a plot.

TABLE VI Data used to generate a plot of number-average molecular weight (expressed relative to polymer styrene standards) as a function of percentage of monomer conversion for PolyAMB/1IBEA/100MAc. Reaction GPC number time % Monomer Average Molecular Y-axis Correlation (min) Conversion Weight PDI Slope intercept coefficient 1.75 26.92 10440 1.33 38.1 9344 0.98 3.88 38.36 10840 1.33 7.83 49.43 11090 1.37 15.47 67.03 11970 1.34 23 77.32 12130 1.36 54.45 88.63 12860 1.34

TABLE VII Data used to generate a plot of number-average molecular weight (expressed relative to polymer styrene standards) as a function of percentage of monomer conversion for PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MAc. Reaction GPC number time % Monomer Average Molecular Y-axis Correlation (min) Conversion Weight PDI Slope intercept coefficient 12 26.71 8614 1.25 52.4 7047 0.98 19 35.63 8697 1.3 37 50.40 9613 1.29 76 69.45 10920 1.28 108 78.42 11180 1.28 142 85.02 11380 1.29

TABLE VIII Data used to generate a plot of number-average molecular weight (expressed relative to polymer styrene standards) as a function of percentage of monomer conversion for PolyAMB/0IBEA/250MAc. Reaction GPC number time % Monomer Average Molecular Y-axis Correlation (min) Conversion Weight PDI Slope intercept coefficient 10 23.74 11050 1.21 132.8 7867 0.99 19 29.16 11650 1.25 36 44 13760 1.29 76 66 16790 1.28 108 76.1 17680 1.33 142 79.86 18620 1.33

TABLE IX Data used to generate a plot of number-average molecular weight (expressed relative to polymer styrene standards) as a function of percentage of monomer conversion for PolyAMB/1IBEA/250MCAc. Reaction GPC number time % Monomer Average Molecular Y-axis Correlation (min) Conversion Weight PDI Slope intercept coefficient 2 89.49 11370 1.41 — — — 3.05 90.43 11180 1.4 3.92 91.33 11050 1.43 4.72 90.34 11520 1.39 6.03 89.57 11120 1.41 7.12 87.8 11310 1.4

Example 5 Coatings from PolyAMB Produced Using Oxidative Cure

An example of the production of a cured film of polyAMB produced using an oxidative cure mechanism is as follows: A catalyst mixture for oxidative cure was produced by mixing 26.6 mg of cobalt 2-ethylhexanoate (OMG Americas, 12% cobalt), 263 mg of zirconium 2-ethylhexanoate (OMG Americas, 18% zirconium), and 1.6 g of zinc carboxylate (Dura Chemicals, 8% in mineral spirits) in a 40 ml vial using a vortex mixture. 9 g of a 73 weight percent solution of polyAMB in tetrahydrofuran (THF) and 540 mg of the catalyst mixture were mixed with a FlackTek mixer using 3500 rpm for 3 minutes. The solution was coated over seven steel Q-panels, one Teflon® coated glass panel, and one glass panel. The wet film thickness was approximately 0.2 mm and the films cured in an oven at 140° C. for 2 hours.

The cured coating was characterized by MEK double rubs (ASTM D 5402-93), pencil hardness (ASTM D 3363-00), König pendulum hardness (ASTM D 4366-95), mandrel bend test (ASTM D 522-93a), and crosshatch adhesion test (ASTM D 3359-97). Free film specimens were characterized using dynamic mechanical analysis (Q800 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out from −40° C. to 120° C. using a heating rate of 5° C./min., frequency of 1 Hz, and strain amplitude of 0.02%. The glass transition temperature (T_(g)) was obtained from the peak maximum in the tan δ response. The thermal properties were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments) by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 120° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). The T_(g) was reported from the thermogram obtained from the 2^(nd) heat. Tensile testing of dumb bell-shaped specimens (ASTM D 638-5) stamped from free films was carried out using an Instron tensile tester fitted with a 100 N load cell. The displacement rate of the movable clamp was set as 1 mm/minute. Data reported was the average of 5 replicate measurements. Table X list the data obtained for the cured coating.

TABLE X Data obtained for cured coatings from polyAMB produced using oxidative cure. Measurement Value Obtained ASTM Testing of Coated Substrates Average thickness (μm) 72 ± 6 König pendulum hardness (glass substrate), 14 sec. König pendulum hardness (steel substrate), sec. 15 Pencil hardness HB Cross hatch adhesion (steel substrate) 5B Conical mandrel bend test, Elongation % 100 Reverse impact (in-lb) >172 MEK double rubs 72 ± 17 Tensile Testing of Free Film Specimens Young's modulus (MPa) 10.4 ± 3.6  Toughness (mJ) 8.1 ± 2.2 Elongation at Break (%) 64 ± 4  Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of Free Films Storage modulus at 90° C. (MPa) 2.26 Tg from tanδ (° C.) 21 Differential Scanning Calorimetry Tg (° C.) 12

Example 6 Synthesis and Characterization of an Epoxy-Functional PolyAMB

PolyAMB was epoxidized as follows: 30 g of polyAMB, 600 ml of methylene chloride, and 57.42 g of 3-chloroperbenzoic acid (Sigma-Aldrich, <77%) were combined in a 1000 ml, 2-liter, round bottom flask and stirred continuously at a temperature of 22° C. After 24 hours of reaction, the epoxidized polymer was isolated by precipitation into methanol and drying overnight under vacuum. The thermal properties of the polymer were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments) by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 50° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 50° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). The thermogram obtained from the 2^(nd) heat showed a glass transition at 27.5° C.

Example 7 Cured Coating Produced from Epoxidized PolyAMB and an Anhydride Curing Agent

10 g of epoxidized polyAMB (E-polyAMB) with an epoxy equivalent weight of 445 g/mole, 2.22 g of 2-butanone, and 1.04 g of hexahydro-4-methylphthalic anhydride (HMPA, Sigma-Aldrich, 96%) were mixed with a FlackTek mixer using 3500 rpm for 2 minutes. The solution was coated over six steel Q-panels, one Teflon® coated glass panel, and one glass panel. The wet film thickness was approximately 0.2 mm and the film cured in a forced air oven at 120° C. for 2.5 hours. A reference coating derived from a bisphenol-A diepoxide (Epon 1001-O-75, 75% weight in methyl n-amyl ketone, epoxy equivalent weight=450-550 g/eq, received from Momentive) was produced by mixing 10 g of Epon 1001-O-75 with 1.26 g of HMPA, and 6.6 g of 2-butanone using the FlackTek mixer. The coating mixture was cast over six steel Q-panels and one Teflon® coated glass panel. The wet film thickness was approximately 0.2 mm and the film cured in a forced air oven at 120° C. for 2.5 hours.

The cured coatings were characterized using pencil hardness (ASTM D 3363-00), König pendulum hardness (ASTM D 4366-95), mandrel bend test (ASTM D 522-93a), and the crosshatch adhesion test (ASTM D 3359-97). The free film obtained from E-polyAMB/HMPA was characterized using dynamic mechanical analysis (Q800 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out from −40° C. to 160° C. using a heating rate of 5° C./min., frequency of 1 Hz, and strain amplitude of 0.02%. The Tg was obtained from the peak maximum in the tan δ response. The values of storage modulus (at 120° C.) and tan δ were found to be 3.05 MPa and 65.2° C., respectively. Tensile testing of dumb bell shaped specimens produced from E-PolyAMB/HMPA according to the ASTM D 638-5 was carried out using an Instron tensile tester fitted with a 100 N load cell. The displacement rate of the movable clamp was set as 1 mm/minute. Data reported was the average of 5 replicate measurements. The values of the Young's modulus (MPa), toughness (mJ), and elongation at break (%) were found to be 2.62±0.3 GPa, 1.4±0.4%, and 0.85±0.36 mJ, respectively. The thermal properties of cured films were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments) by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 120° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). The Tgs reported from the thermograms obtained from the 2^(nd) heat were 46° C. and 40° C. for E-PolyAMB/HMPA and Epon/HMPA, respectively. Table lists the physical properties of these cured coatings.

TABLE XI Data obtained for cured coatings of E-PolyAMB/HMPA and Epon/HMPA. E-PolyAMB/ Measurement HMPA Epon/HMPA ASTM Testing of Coated Substrates Average thickness (μm) 39 ± 2  45 ± 7 König pendulum hardness (steel substrate), 190 ± 5  193 ± 11 sec. Pencil hardness 2H HB Cross hatch adhesion (steel substrate) 5B 0B Conical mandrel bend test, Elongation % 100 0 Reverse impact (in-lb) MEK double rubs Tensile Testing of Free Film Specimens Young's modulus (GPa) 2.62 ± 0.3  Toughness (mJ) 0.85 ± 0.36 Elongation at Break (%) 1.4 ± 0.4 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of Free Films Storage modulus at 120° C. (MPa) 305 Tg from tanδ (° C.) 65 Differential Scanning Calorimetry Tg (° C.) 46 40

Example 8 Copolymers of AMB and Pentaethylene Glycol Ethyl Vinyl Ether

Pentaethylene glycol ethyl vinyl ether (PEGEVE) was synthesized using a two step process. First, 20 g of triethylene glycol monoethyl ether (TEGMEE, >98% purity from TCF) America), 8.1 g of sodium hydroxide (90%, Sigma-Aldrich), 73 ml of tetrahydrofuran (THF), and 49 ml of DI water were combined in a 500 ml, 3-neck, round-bottom flask using constant stirring to produce a homogeneous solution. The mixture was cooled to 0° C. and then 30.2 g of p-toluenesulfonyl chloride (Aldrich, 99% purity) in 60 ml of THF was added to the reaction mixture drop-wise using an addition funnel and the reaction conducted for 2 hours at 0° C. The reaction mixture was then poured into 100 ml of ice water and the product extracted with methylene chloride. The organic layer was washed with DI water and subsequently dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The product, Ts-TEGMEE, was recovered after evaporation of volatiles under vacuum and dried under vacuum overnight. Next, 2.67 g of sodium hydroxide (Aldrich, 90% purity), 5.17 g of diethylene glycol monovinyl ether (DEGMVE, TCI America), and 10 g of Ts-TEGMEE were combined with 40 ml of THF and 15 ml of DI water in a 500 ml, 3-neck, round-bottom flask equipped with a nitrogen blanket. The temperature was raised to 60° C. with constant stirring. After 24 hours, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with 150 ml of diethyl ether. The organic layer was washed multiple times with 200 ml of DI water and dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The product, PEGEVE, was collected after evaporation of volatiles under vacuum.

Copolymers of AMB and PEGEVE were produced at 0° C. within a glove box in series of 40 ml vials dried at 200° C. under vacuum just before use. The chemical composition of the polymerization mixtures are described in Table XII. AMB, PEGEVE, IBEA solution (0.28 g/ml in toluene), and MAc were dissolved in dry toluene and chilled to 0° C. Each polymerization was initiated with the addition of ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution (25 wt. % in toluene). After 8 hours, each polymerization was terminated with the addition of 10 ml of methanol. Each copolymer was isolated by passing the polymer solution in methylene chloride through a column packed with alumina and then evaporating of all the volatiles and drying under vacuum overnight at a temperature of 35° C. Polymer molecular weight was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. Tg of the polymers were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 50° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 50° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). Table XIII lists the number-average molecular weight (Mn) expressed relative to polystyrene standards, molecular weight distribution (MWD), and Tg of the polymers produced.

TABLE XII Chemical composition of reaction mixtures used to produce polyAMB, polyPEGEVE, and poly(AMB-r-PEGEVE) copolymers. Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of IBEA Wt. of Wt. of Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5) Polymer AMB PEGEVE solution* MAc toluene solution Designation (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (g) (μl) PolyAMB 1.5 0 186 237 7.88 88 PolyPEGEVE 0 1.5 149 190 7.88 70 Poly(AMB-r-PEGEVE)75-25 1.125 0.375 177 226 7.88 83 Poly(AMB-r-PEGEVE)50-50 0.75 0.75 167 213 7.88 79 Poly(AMB-r-PEGEVE)25-75 0.375 1.125 158 202 7.88 75 *IBEA solution was 0.455 g of IBEA in 16 ml of dry toluene.

TABLE XIII Mn, MWD, and Tg data obtained for the polymers described in Table XII. Polymer Designation Mn MWD T_(g) (DSC), ° C. Poly(AMB) 18,300 1.40 1.1 Poly(VEPEG) 12,600 1.48 −74.1 Poly(AMB-r-VEPEG)75-25 13,500 1.51 −26.4 Poly(AMB-r-VEPEG)50-50 14,660 1.54 −49.9 Poly(AMB-r-VEPEG)25-75 12,550 1.52 −65.2

Example 9 Copolymers of AMB and Cyclohexyl Vinyl Ether

Copolymers of AMB and cyclohexyl vinyl ether (CHVE, TCI America, >95%) were produced at 0° C. within a glove box in series of 40 ml vials dried at 200° C. under vacuum just before use. The chemical composition of the polymerization mixtures are described in Table XIV. AMB, CHVE, IBEA solution (0.28 g/ml in toluene), and MAc were dissolved in dry toluene and chilled to 0° C. Each polymerization was initiated with the addition of ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution (25 wt. % in toluene). After 8 hours, each polymerization was terminated with the addition of 10 ml of methanol, which caused the polymer to precipitate. The precipitated polymers were purified using centrifugation and multiple washings with methanol and the polymers isolated by evaporation of volatiles under vacuum. Polymer molecular weight was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. Tg of the polymers were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out by first heating from 30° C. to 80° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 80° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). The T_(g) was reported from the thermogram obtained from the 2^(nd) heat. Table XV lists the number-average molecular weight (Mn) expressed relative to polystyrene standards, molecular weight distribution (MWD), and Tg of the polymers produced.

TABLE XIV Chemical composition of reaction mixtures used to produce polyAMB, polyCHVE, and poly(AMB-r-CHVE) copolymers. Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of IBEA Wt. of Wt. of Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5) Polymer AMB CHVE solution* MAc toluene solution Designation (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (g) (μl) Poly(AMB) 1.5 0 186 237 7.88 88 Poly(CHVE) 0 1.5 345 440 7.88 163 Poly(AMB-r-CHVE)75-25 1.125 0.375 226 288 7.88 106 Poly(AMB-r-CHVE)50-50 0.75 0.75 265 339 7.88 125 Poly(AMB-r-CHVE)25-75 0.375 1.125 305 390 7.88 144 *IBEA solution represents 0.455 g of IBEA in 16 ml of dry toluene.

TABLE XV Monomer conversion, Mn, MWD, and Tg data obtained for the polymers described in Table XIV. Conversion T_(g) (DSC), Polymer Designation (%) Mn MWD ° C. PolyAMB 96 18,300 1.40 1.1 PolyCHVE 98 16,900 1.51 53.5 Poly(AMB-r-CHVE)75-25 94 17,560 1.42 6.3 Poly(AMB-r-CHVE)50-50 95 18,060 1.43 13 Poly(AMB-r-CHVE)25-75 92 18,930 1.45 34.8

Example 10 Copolymers of AMB and 2-(Vinyloxy)ethyl Soyate

2-(vinyloxy)ethyl soyate (2-VOES) was synthesized as follows: First, 0.42 g of potassium hydroxide was dried an oven at 140° C. for 30 minutes to remove moisture. Then, 15 g of soybean oil, 15 g of ethylene glycol monovinyl ether (TCI America), and the dried potassium hydroxide were mixed together in a two-neck round bottom flask and stirred for 3 hr at 70° C. The reaction mixture was then cooled to room temperature and transferred to a 250 ml separating funnel. 100 ml of n-hexane was added to the separating funnel and the solution washed with acidic, DI water (pH 3-3.5) twice and then washed multiple time with DI water and finally with brine solution. The organic layer was dried over MgSO4 and the product isolated by vacuum stripping volatiles. Yield: 13 g (84%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 6.45 (m, 1H), 5.34 (m, 1.5H), 4.28 (t, 2H), 4.16 (dd, 1H), 4.01 (dd, 1H), 3.85 (t, 2H, ═CH—O—CH₂—CH₂—), 2.76 (m, 1.5H), 2.30 (t, 2H,), 2.03 (m, 4H), 1.57 (m, 2H), 1.29 (m, 18H), 0.86-0.97 (m, 3H.

Copolymers of AMB and 2-VOES were produced at 0° C. within a glove box in a series of 40 ml vials dried at 200° C. under vacuum just before use. The chemical composition of the polymerization mixtures are described in Table XVI. AMB, 2-VOES, IBEA solution (0.28 g/ml in toluene), and MAc were dissolved in dry toluene and chilled to 0° C. Each polymerization was initiated with the addition of ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution (25 wt. % in toluene). After 8 hours, each polymerization was terminated with the addition of 10 ml of methanol, which caused the polymer to precipitate. The precipitated polymers were purified using centrifugation and multiple washings with methanol and the polymers isolated by evaporation of volatiles under vacuum. Polymer molecular weight was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. Tg of the polymers were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 50° C. at a heating rate of 10° C./minute (1^(st) heat), cooling from 50° C. to −120° C. at a cooling rate of 10° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −120° C. to 120° C. at a heating rate 10° C./minute (2^(nd) heat). Table XVII lists the number-average molecular weight (Mn) expressed relative to polystyrene standards, molecular weight distribution (MWD), and Tg of the polymers produced.

TABLE XVI Chemical composition of reaction mixtures used to produce polyAMB and poly(AMB-r-2-VOES) copolymers. Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of IBEA Wt. of Wt. of Wt. of Polymer AMB 2-VOES solution* MAc toluene Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5) Designation (g) (g) (mg) (mg) (g) solution (μl) Poly(AMB) 1.5 0 186 237 7.88 88 Poly(AMB-r-2-VOES)75-25 1.125 0.375 170 218 7.88 290 Poly(AMB-r-2-VOES)50-50 0.75 0.75 155 198 7.88 263 Poly(AMB-r-2-VOES)25-75 0.375 1.125 140 178 7.88 237 *IBEA solution represents 0.455 g of IBEA in 16 ml of dry toluene.

TABLE XVII Monomer conversion, Mn, MWD, and Tg data obtained for the polymers described in Table XVI. Conversion Polymer Designation (%) Mn MWD T_(g) (DSC), ° C. Poly(AMB) 96 18,300 1.40 1.1 Poly(AMB-r-2- 93 14,790 1.39 −15.2 VOES)75-25 Poly(AMB-r-2- 90 12,390 1.36 −26.6 VOES)50-50 Poly(AMB-r-2- 76 15,520 1.25 −89.5 VOES)25-75

Example 11 Synthesis of Isoeugenol Vinyl Ether

Isoeugenol vinyl ether was synthesized according to the scheme shown below:

To a mixture of [IrCl(cod)]_(z) (0.656 mmol) and Na₂CO₃ (39.36 mmol) in toluene (66 mL) were added isoeugenol (65.6 mmol) and vinyl acetate (131.18 mmol) under N₂. The reaction mixture was stirred at 100° C. for 2 h. After quenching with wet ether, the product was isolated by silica gel column chromatography using hexane as the eluent. Isoeugenol vinyl ether was obtained as colorless liquid in 37% yield.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ 1.89 (m, 3H), 3.85 (s, 3H), 4.35 (m, 1H), 4.64 (m, 1H), 6.13 (m, 1H), 6.34 (dd, J=15.6, 1.2 Hz, 1H), 6.57 (m, 1H), 6.82-6.90 (m, 2H).

Example 12 Synthesis of 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB)

Materials: Eugenol, 2-Methoxy-4-(2-propenyl)phenol, 99% was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich.

Synthesis of AMB consisted of the preparation of 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether followed by the reaction with eugenol in the presence of potassium hydroxide in methanol. 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether was synthesized using the synthetic scheme shown below:

A detailed procedure is as follows: 100.65 g of 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether, 200.16 g of sodium iodide and 730 g of acetone were combined in a 2-liter, 3-neck, round-bottom flask and heated at a temperature of 60° C. for 72 hours. Next, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with 600 ml of diethyl ether. The organic layer was washed thrice with deionized water and dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The product was recovered by rotary evaporation of diethyl ether and excess 2-chloroethyl vinyl ether at a temperature of 50° C. and a pressure of 60 mmHg for 1 hour. Proton NMR was used to confirm the production of 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 6.44 ppm (q, 1H, OCH═C), 4.19, 4.05 ppm (dd, 2H, CH₂═C), 3.95 ppm (t, 2H, OCH₂), 3.3 ppm (t, 2H, CH₂I).

Synthesis of 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB). AMB was synthesized using the synthetic scheme below:

A detailed procedure is as follows: 146.9 g of 2-iodoethyl vinyl ether, 87.4 g of eugenol, 42.7 g of potassium hydroxide, and 500 ml of methanol were combined in a 1000 ml, round-bottom flask fitted with a reflux condenser and stirred at a temperature of 62° C. After 40 hours of reaction, the reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with diethyl ether. The organic layer was washed with deionized water thrice and dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The crude product was collected after rotary evaporation of all volatiles at 30° C. for 3 hours. The product, AMB was crystallized from methanol at a temperature of −30° C. and dried under vacuum overnight. Proton NMR was used to confirm the production of AMB: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 6.5 ppm (q, 1H, OCH═C), 4.22 ppm-4.25 ppm (m, 2H, CH₂═C—O), 4.0 ppm-4.2 ppm (m, 4H, CH₂—CH₂), 3.3 ppm (d, 2H, C═C—CH₂), 5.9 ppm (m, 1H, C═CH—C), 5.1 (m, 2H, CH₂═C—C), 3.8 ppm (s, 3H, CH₃), 6.7 ppm, 6.9 ppm (m, 3H, Ar—H).

The successful synthesis of AMB was demonstrated using proton NMR (FIG. 1). One methine and two methylene protons in the vinyl ether double bond appeared at 6.5, 4.22, and 4.2 ppm, respectively.

Example 13 Synthesis of an Initiator for Cationic Polymerization from 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB)

1-(2-(4-allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl acetate (AMEA) was synthesized using the synthetic scheme shown below:

A detailed procedure is as follows: 39.3 g of AMB and 12.2 g of glacial acetic acid were combined in a 250 ml, round-bottom flask fitted with a reflux condenser and stirred at a temperature of 60° C. for 18 hours. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and diluted with diethyl ether. The organic layer was washed with deionized water and dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The crude product was recovered after rotary evaporation of diethyl ether under a reduced pressure at 30° C. The product initiator (AMEA) was separated from the unreacted AMB by passing the crude product through a column packed with silica gel possessing a pore size of 60 Å. The mobile phase was selected as a combination of ethyl acetate and n-hexane (10:90 vol/vol). The pure initiator was collected after rotary evaporation of all volatiles and dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate before use. Proton NMR, carbon NMR and FTIR were used to confirm the production of AMEA: ¹H NMR (CDCl₃) δ 5.9 ppm (m, 2H, O—CH—O, C═CH—C), 1.3 ppm (d, 3H, H₃C—C—O), 4.03 ppm (t, 2H, CH₂—CH₂), 3.8 ppm (m, 2H, CH₂—CH₂), 3.3 ppm (d, 2H, C═C—CH₂), 3.7 ppm (s, 3H, H₃C—O), 6.7 ppm, 6.9 ppm (m, 3H, Ar—H), 1.9 ppm (s, 3H, CH₃—C═O).

Example 14 Exemplary Living Carbocationic Polymerization of a Vinyl Ether Monomer using 1-(2-(4-allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl acetate (AMEA) as an Initiator

What follows is an example of carbocationic polymerization of a vinyl ether monomer using 1-(2-(4-allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl acetate (AMEA) as a functionalized initiator for the polymerization of a vinyl ether monomer. The use of AMEA as the initiator enables the production of block and graft copolymers by utilizing the allyl group derived from AMEA. The scheme below illustrates the synthesis of poly(2-chlorovinyl ether) possessing an allyl group at one chain end, which was derived from AMEA:

Chloroethyl vinyl ether (CVE) and toluene were distilled over calcium hydride before use. Polymerizations were carried out in a series of dry test tubes partially immersed in a heptane bath at 0° C. inside a glove box. In each test tube, 30.4 mg of AMEA, 2.2 g of CVE ([CVE]₀:[AMEA]₀=200:1), and 2.8 g of methyl chloroacetate (MCAc) ([CVE]₀:[MCAc]₀=200:250) were dissolved in 6.36 g of dry toluene and chilled to 0° C. Each polymerization was initiated by the addition of 256 mg of supplied ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution ([CVE]₀:[Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5)]₀=200:5). Each reaction was terminated after predetermined interval times by the addition of 15 ml of chilled methanol, which caused the polymer to precipitate. The polymer was isolated and washed multiple times with methanol using centrifugation. The purified polymer was collected as a viscous liquid after centrifugation at 4500 rpm at a temperature of 21° C. for 10 minutes and drying under vacuum overnight. The percentage of conversion of each polymerization was calculated gravimetrically and the number average molecular weight was measured using gel permeation chromatography.

As shown in FIG. 2, molecular weight increased linearly with CVE conversion and polydispersity index (PDI) of the polymer samples was relatively low, which suggests that the polymerization was living.

Synthesis of PCVE Possessing a Theoretical Degree of Polymerization of 50

53.35 g of CVE, 2.95 g of AMEA, 65.8 ml of MCAc ([CVE]₀:[AMEA]₀:[MCAc]₀=50:1:75) were dissolved in 154 g of dry toluene and taken in a 500 ml round bottom flask. The solution was cooled to 0° C. and the reaction was started by the addition of 9.9 g of supplied ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution ([CVE]₀:[Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5)]₀=50:2). After 32 minutes of reaction, the reaction mixture was terminated by the addition of 350 ml of chilled methanol, which caused the polymer to precipitate. The polymer was isolated and washed multiple times with methanol using centrifugation. The purified polymer was collected as a viscous liquid after centrifugation at 4500 rpm at a temperature of 21° C. for 10 minutes and drying under vacuum overnight. The percentage of conversion was calculated gravimetrically and the number average molecular weight was measured using gel permeation chromatography.

Example 15 Synthesis of a Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)-Based Block Copolymer Using a Vinyl Ether Polymer with an Allyl Group at one Chain End Derived from Using 1-(2-(4-allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl acetate (AMEA) as an Initiator and Hydrosilylation to Couple Polymer Chains

The synthesis procedure for producing a poly(2-chloroethyl vinyl ether-b-poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-poly(2-chloroethyl vinyl ether) triblock copolymer (PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE) is shown below:

A detailed procedure is as follows: PCVE and hydride-terminated PDMS (PDMS/H) were combined together in a dry one liter round bottom flask inside a glove box according to the formulation in Table XVIII:

TABLE XVIII Formulation table for the synthesis of PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE. Wt. of PDMS/ H-1.05K Wt of (DMS-H11 Wt. of PDMS/H- Ratio of PDMS-b- PCVE, from 17.2K (DMS-H25 PCVE:PDMS PCVE (g) Gelest), (g) from Gelest), (g) (Wt. %) PDMS- 40 4.17 — 90.6:9.4  1.05K PDMS- 40 — 65.22 38:62 17.2K

Polymers were dissolved by the addition of toluene and the final concentration of the reaction mixture was maintained as 16 weight percent solids. The reaction was started by the addition of 270 mg of platinum oxide and heating at a temperature of 90° C. The completion of hydrosilylation was monitored using proton NMR and FTIR. The reaction was continued for 4 days until the Si—H protons at 4.7 ppm and allyl protons at 5.1 ppm were totally absent in a proton NMR spectrum of PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE. The reaction was then cooled to room temperature and the platinum oxide was vacuum filtered through a silica bed. The PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE was precipitated into methanol and dried under vacuum overnight.

Synthesis of an Antimicrobial Polymer by Quaternization of a PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE Triblock Copolymer

The procedure for producing quaternized PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE triblock copolymers is illustrated below:

A detailed procedure is as follows: PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE and a tertiary amine were combined in a 40 ml vial and dissolved with toluene at a concentration of 5 weight percent solids. A series of such solutions was produced by varying the n-alkyl chain lengths and concentration of the tertiary amine. Four different tertiary amines, namely, N,N-dimethyldodecylamine (C-12), N,N-dimethyltetradecylamine (C-14), N,N-dimethylhexadecylamine (C-16), and N,N-dimethyloctadecylamine (C-18) were used. For each amine, three different concentrations were used to replace the chlorine atoms in PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE by 10 mole %, 30 mole %, and 50 mole %. Thus, a total of 12 polymer solutions were produced from each PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE. The compositions of the reaction mixtures are described in Tables XIX and XX:

TABLE XIX Formulation table for the quaternization of PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE synthesized from PDMS/H-1.05K. Wt. of PDMS- Wt. of C-12 Wt. of C-14 Wt. of C-16 Wt. of C-18 PDMS-b-PCVE-b-PQ 1.05K (g) amine (g) amine (g) amine (g) amine (g) PDMS-1.05K-C12- 1.5 0.281 — — — 10% PDMS-1.05K-C12- 1.5 0.842 — — — 30% PDMS-1.05K-C12- 1.5 1.403 — — — 50% PDMS-1.05K-C14- 1.5 — 0.324 — — 10% PDMS-1.05K-C14- 1.5 — 0.973 — — 30% PDMS-1.05K-C14- 1.5 — 1.621 — — 50% PDMS-1.05K-C16- 1.5 — — 0.362 — 10% PDMS-1.05K-C16- 1.5 — — 1.086 — 30% PDMS-1.05K-C16- 1.5 — — 1.809 — 50% PDMS-1.05K-C18- 1.5 — — —  0.447 10% PDMS-1.05K-C18- 1.5 — — — 1.34 30% PDMS-1.05K-C18- 1.5 — — — 2.23 50%

TABLE XX Formulation table for the quaternization of PCVE-b-PDMS-b-PCVE synthesized from PDMS/H-17.2K. Wt. of PDMS- Wt. of C- Wt. of C- Wt. of C- Wt. of C- PDMS-b-PCVE-b-PQ 17.2K (g) 12 (g) 14 (g) 16 (g) 18 (g) PDMS-17.2K-C12- 1.5 0.119 — — — 10% PDMS-17.2K-C12- 1.5 0.357 — — — 30% PDMS-17.2K-C12- 1.5 0.596 — — — 50% PDMS-17.2K-C14- 1.5 — 0.138 — — 10% PDMS-17.2K-C14- 1.5 — 0.413 — — 30% PDMS-17.2K-C14- 1.5 — 0.688 — — 50% PDMS-17.2K-C16- 1.5 — — 0.154 — 10% PDMS-17.2K-C16- 1.5 — — 0.461 — 30% PDMS-17.2K-C16- 1.5 — — 0.768 — 50% PDMS-17.2K-C18- 1.5 — — — 0.189 10% PDMS-17.2K-C18- 1.5 — — — 0.568 30% PDMS-17.2K-C18- 1.5 — — — 0.947 50%

Example 16 Copolymers of AMB and Triethylene Glycol Ethyl Vinyl Ether (TEGEVE)

Triethylene glycol ethyl vinyl ether (TEGEVE) was synthesized using a two step process. First, 40.2 g (0.3 mol) of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether (DEGMEE, >98% purity from Aldrich), 12.6 g of sodium hydroxide (90%, Sigma-Aldrich), 160 ml of tetrahydrofuran (THF), and 40 ml of DI water were combined in a 500 ml, 3-neck, round-bottom flask using constant stirring to produce a homogeneous solution. The mixture was cooled to 0° C. and then 55.6 g (0.28 mol) of p-toluenesulfonyl chloride (Aldrich, 99% purity) in 200 ml of THF was added to the reaction mixture drop-wise using an addition funnel and the reaction conducted for 2 hours at 0° C. and then overnight at room temperature. The reaction mixture was then poured into 200 ml of ice water and the product extracted with methylene chloride (150 ml×3). The organic layer was washed with DI water and subsequently dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The tosyl compound was recovered after evaporation of volatiles under vacuum and dried under vacuum overnight. Yield: 65.6 g. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 7.75 (d, 8 Hz, 2H); 7.30 (d, 8 Hz, 2H); 4.12 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.65 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.54-3.51 (m, 2H); 3.48-3.42 (m, 4H); 2.40 (s, 3H); 1.15 (t, 8 Hz, 3H).

Next, 8.8 g (0.1 mol) of ethylene glycol monovinyl ether (EGMVE) in 100 ml of THF was added dropwise to a suspension of NaH (60% dispersion in mineral oil) (4.45 g) in 150 mL of THF at 0° C. This mixture was stirred for a 2 hrs at 0° C. and then a solution of the tosyl compound (28.9 g, 0.1 mol) in 100 mL of THF was added dropwise. The solution was allowed to warm to room temperature and then heated at 60° C. overnight. The solid precipitate was filtered off and all volatile materials were removed by rotory evaporation. The yellow oil was dissolved into toluene (200 mL) and the organic layer wash with 3×150 mL of water. The aqueous layer was then next extracted with 2×50 mL of chloroform to recover any product that may have been present in the aqueous layer. All the organic layers were combined, dried with MgSO₄, and the solvent removed by rotary evaporation. Yield: 19.3 g. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 6.46 (q, 8 Hz, 1H); 4.15 (dd, 14 Hz & 2 Hz, 1H); 3.97 (dd, 8 Hz & 2 Hz, 1H); 3.81 (t, 4 Hz, 2H), 3.71 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.65-3.60 (m, 6H); 3.55 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.49 (q, 8 Hz, 2H); 1.17 (t, 8 Hz, 3H).

A copolymer of AMB and TEGEVE (75:25 Mole ratio) was produced at 0° C. within a glove box in a 250 ml round-bottom flask dried at 200° C. under vacuum just before use. AMB (11.7 g, 0.05 M), TEGEVE (3.07 g, 0.0167 M), and IBEA solution (1 ml, 0.2 M in toluene) were dissolved in dry toluene (60 ml) and chilled to 0° C. The polymerization was initiated with the addition of ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution (2.0 ml, 25 wt. % in toluene). After 16 hours, the polymerization was terminated with the addition of 10 ml of methanol. The volume of the solution was reduced to 50% using a rotary evaporator and the copolymer isolated by precipitation into methanol. The copolymer was then dissolved in minimum volume of chloroform and re-precipitated into methanol. The purified polymer was then dried under vacuum overnight at a temperature of 35° C. Polymer molecular weight was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography System equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. M_(n), 7,700 (MWD, 1.68). Tg of the polymer was determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out by first heating the sample from 30° C. to 150° C. at a heating rate of 20° C./minute (1st heat), cooling from 150° C. to −100° C. at a cooling rate of 20° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −100° C. to 150° C. at a heating rate 20° C./minute (2nd heat). T_(g) (DSC), ° C. (−6.99).

Example 17 Copolymers of AMB and Tetraethylene Glycol Methyl Vinyl Ether (TEGMVE) and Their Use for the Production Siloxane-Based Coatings for Potential Application as Fouling-Release Coatings for Ship Hulls

Tetraethylene glycol methyl vinyl ether (TEGMVE) was synthesized using a two step process. First, 16.42 g (0.1 mol) of triethylene glycol monomethyl ether (TEGMME, >98% purity from TCI America), 4.2 g of sodium hydroxide (90%, Sigma-Aldrich), 70 ml of tetrahydrofuran (THF), and 30 ml of DI water were combined in a 500 ml, 3-neck, round-bottom flask using constant stirring to produce a homogeneous solution. The mixture was cooled to 0° C. and then 18.5 g (0.097 mol) of p-toluenesulfonyl chloride (Aldrich, 99% purity) in 50 ml of THF was added to the reaction mixture drop-wise using an addition funnel and the reaction conducted for 2 hours at 0° C. and then overnight at room temperature. The reaction mixture was then poured into 100 ml of ice water and the product extracted with methylene chloride (50 ml×3). The organic layer was washed with DI water and subsequently dried with anhydrous magnesium sulfate. The product, Ts-TEGME, was recovered after evaporation of volatiles under vacuum and dried under vacuum overnight. Yield: 26.6 g. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 7.76 (d, 8 Hz, 2H); 7.31 (d, 8 Hz, 2H); 4.13 (t, 6 Hz, 2H); 3.65 (t, 6 Hz, 2H); 3.59-3.56 (m, 6H); 3.51-3.48 (m, 2H); 3.34 (s, 3H); 2.42 (s, 3H).

Next, 2.64 g (0.03 mol) of ethylene glycol monovinyl ether (EGMVE) in 40 ml of THF was added dropwise to a suspension of NaH (60% dispersion in mineral oil) (1.5 g, 0.037 mol) in 40 mL of THF at 0° C. This mixture was stirred for a 2 hrs at 0° C. and then a solution of Ts-TEGME (9.55 g, 0.03 mol) in 30 mL of THF was added dropwise. The solution was allowed to warm to room temperature and then heated at 60° C. overnight. The solid precipitate was filtered off and all volatile materials were removed under vacuum. The yellow oil was dissolved in toluene (100 mL) and the organic layer washed with 3×100 mL of water. Next, the aqueous layer was extracted with 2×50 mL of chloroform to recover any product that may have been retained in the aqueous layer. The organic layers (i.e. toluene and chloroform) were combined, dried with MgSO4, and the solvent removed by rotary evaporation. Yield: 5.1 g. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 6.45 (q, 8 Hz, 1H); 4.14 (dd, 14 Hz & 2 Hz, 1H); 3.97 (dd, 8 Hz & 2 Hz, 1H); 3.80 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.69 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.65-3.59 (m, 10H); 3.51 (t, 4 Hz, 2H); 3.34 (s, 3H).

Copolymers of AMB and TEGMVE and well as the homopolymer of AMB (polyAMB) were produced at 0° C. within a glove box in a 250 ml round-bottom flask dried at 200° C. under vacuum just before use. The chemical composition of the polymerization mixtures are described in Table XXI. AMB, TEGMVE, and IBEA solution were dissolved in dry toluene and chilled to 0° C. Each polymerization was initiated with the addition of ethylaluminum sesquichloride solution (25 wt. % in toluene). After 16 hours, each polymerization was terminated with the addition of 10 ml of methanol. The volumes of the solutions were reduced to 50% using rotary evaporator and then the copolymers were isolated by precipitation into methanol. The isolated copolymers were then dissolved in a minimum volume of chloroform and re-precipitated into methanol. Copolymers were dried under vacuum overnight at a temperature of 35° C. Polymer molecular weight was characterized using a high-throughput Symyx Rapid Gel Permeation Chromatography System equipped with an evaporative light scattering detector (PL-ELS 1000) and polystyrene standards. Tg of the polymers were determined using differential scanning calorimetry (Q1000 from TA Instruments). The experiment was carried out by first heating samples from 30° C. to 150° C. at a heating rate of 20° C./minute (1st heat), cooling from 150° C. to −100° C. at a cooling rate of 20° C./minute (cooling), and reheating from −100° C. to 150° C. at a heating rate 20° C./minute (2nd heat). Table XXII lists the number-average molecular weight (Mn), expressed relative to polystyrene standards, molecular weight distribution (MWD), and Tg of the polymers produced.

TABLE XXI Chemical composition of reaction mixtures used to produce polyAMB, and poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE) copolymers. Amount Amount Amount Amount IBEA Amount Et_(1.5)AlCl_(1.5) Polymer of AMB TEGMVE solution* toluene solution Yield Designation (g) (g) (ml) (ml) (ml) (g) PolyAMB 15.6 0 1.0 60 2.0 14.2 Poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)90-10 14.04 1.56 1.0 60 2.0 14.2 Poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25 11.7 3.9 1.0 60 2.0 14.7 Poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)50-50 7.72 7.72 1.0 60 2.0 15.0 *IBEA solution was 0.2M in Toluene.

TABLE XXII Monomer conversion, Mn, MWD, and Tg data obtained for the polymers described in Table XXI. Conversion to the procedure wa (%) Mn MWD T_(g) (DSC), ° C. Poly(AMB) 91 33,500 1.67 7.2 Poly(AMB-r- 91 21,500 1.54 −2.8 TEGMVE)90-10 Poly(AMB-r- 94 27,200 1.54 −12.6 TEGMVE)75-25 Poly(AMB-r- 97 13,000 1.91 −35.3 TEGMVE)50-50

Synthesis of Monohydride-Functional Polydimethylsiloxane (MHT-PDMS)

Monohydride-terminated polydimethylsiloxane (MHT-PDMS) was synthesized as illustrated below:

A detailed procedure is as follows: 50 g (0.22 M) of hexamethylcyclotricycloxane (D₃) (Aldrich) was dissolved in 50 ml of THF. The solution was degassed by purging with nitrogen gas for 15 minutes. Lithium trimethylsilanolate (0.96 g, 10 mmol) (Aldrich) was added to the solution to initiate polymerization at room temperature. The mixture was stirred at room temperature for 24 hours. The solution was cooled to 0° C. and 1.90 g of dimethylchlorosilane (Aldrich) was added. The solution was rotary evaporated to remove THF and a lithium chloride salt precipitate was formed. The lithium chloride salt was removed by vacuum filtration to yield MHT-PDMS. Yield: 46.2 g. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 4.70 (m, Si—H); 0.07 (s, Me). Molecular weight based on NMR 7900, GPC (M_(n) 7700, PDI 1.17). Synthesis of PolyAMB with PDMS Grafts

As illustrated below, PMDS grafts were attached to polyAMB using hydrosilylation:

14.04 g (60 mmol) of polyAMB (described in Table XXI) and 150 ml of dry toluene were added to a two-neck, 250 ml, round-bottom flask. The mixture was heated to 40° C. under stirring to dissolve the polymer. The solution was degassed for 15 minutes by purging with nitrogen. 0.10 g of Karstedt's catalyst was added and the solution stirred at 40° C. for 20 minutes. The MHT-PDMS (3.50 g, 25% by weight) was added and the mixture stirred at 40° C. for 16 h. The solution was cooled to room temperature and the volume was reduced to 50% using a rotary evaporator. The mixture was then added to rapidly stirring methanol (250 ml) which caused the polymer to precipitate. The polymer was then dissolve in minimum volume of chloroform and re-precipitated into methanol. Finally, the polymer was dried under vacuum. Yield: 14.2 g (79%). ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 6.68-6.53 (m, 3H); 5.94-5.81 (m, 1H); 4.99 (bs, 2H); 3.94 (bs, 2H); 3.70 (bs 6H); 3.22 (bs, 2H); 1.66 (bs, 2H); 0.06 (s, 4.5H). T_(g) (DSC) 6° C.

Synthesis of a Graft Copolymer Based on Poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25 and MHT-PDMS

The graft copolymer illustrated below was synthesized in the same fashion as the polyAMB-g-PDMS graft copolymer previously described. The only exception to the procedure was that poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25 (described in Table XXI) was used in place of polyAMB. Yield: 73%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃, TMS): δ (ppm) 6.72-6.54 (m, 3H); 5.86 (bs, 1H); 5.00 (bs, 2H); 3.94-3.23 (bs, 15H); 1.64 (bs, 2H); 0.06 (s, 7H). T_(g) (DSC)-9.0° C.

Addition-Cured Siloxane Coatings Containing Graft Copolymers Based on PolyAMB or Poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25

The polyAMB-g-PDMS graft copolymer and poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25-g-PDMS graft copolymer described above were incorporated into an addition-curable, siloxane-based coating for potential application as a fouling-release coating to combat biofouling of ship hulls. Six coatings were produced as follows: First, three stock solutions were prepared. Stock solution 1 comprised a solution blend of 54.8 g of SILASTIC® T-2 Base (Dow Corning) and 54.7 g of SW Reducer 15 (Sherwin-Williams). Stock solution 2 was derived from a mixture of 4.4 g of polyAMB-g-PDMS graft copolymer and 17.7 g of SW Reducer 15 (Sherwin-Williams), while stock solution 3 was derived from a mixture of 3.9 g of poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25-g-PDMS graft copolymer and 15.5 g of SW Reducer 15 (Sherwin-Williams). The six coating solutions produced are described in Table XXIII. All of the coatings cured into tack-free films when allowed to sit at room temperature.

TABLE XXIII Compositions of addition-cured polysiloxane-based coatings containing the polyAMB-g-PDMS graft copolymer or poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25- g-PDMS graft copolymer. All values are weight percent. SILASTIC ® T-2 Stock Stock Stock Curing Agent Coating Label solution 1 solution 2 solution 3 (Dow Corning) 1 26 66 — 8 2 26 — 66 8 3 20 72 — 8 4 20 — 72 8 5 14 78 — 8 6 14 — 78 8 Moisture-curable compositions based on polyAMB, poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)90-10, poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25, and poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)50-50, which are described in Table XXI, were produced using the synthetic scheme shown below:

The synthetic procedure was as follows: For each of the four polymers [polyAMB, poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)90-10, poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)75-25, and poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)50-50]. 3.51 g (15 mmol) of polymer and 18 ml of chloroform were combined in a 40 ml glass vial inside a glove box. The mixture was heated at 40° C. with stirring to dissolve the polymer. Two drops of Karstedt's catalyst was added and stirring continued at 40° C. for 20 minutes. Next, the MHT-PDMS previously described (0.877 g, 25% by weight) and trimethoxysilane (0.336 g, 3 mmol, from Gelest) were added and the mixture stirred at 40° C. for 16 h. The polymer solutions produced were used for the production of moisture-curable coatings by adding tetrabutylammonium fluoride (TBAF) as a catalyst for condensation reactions. TBAF, obtained from Aldrich Chemical as a 1M solution in xylene, was diluted to 0.1M with toluene. 150 mg of the 0.1M TBAF was added into each of the reaction mixtures described above and mixed using a vortex mixer. The coating solutions (300 μl for each) were deposited over primed aluminum discs placed inside wells of a microtiter plate. Coatings were cured at room temperature. The fouling-release properties of coatings based on polyAMB and poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)90-10 were characterized using the marine bacterium, Cellulophaga lytica, and the algal species, Navicula incerta, and the characterization methods described in Chisholm and Christianson PCT Int. Appl. (2011) WO 2011069111 A1 20110609. Table XXIV lists the percent biofilm removal from the two coatings of the invention to that for a commercially available silicone elastomer, namely, SILASTIC® T-2 from Dow Corning. As shown in Table XXIV, the coatings based on the polymers of the invention provided much easier removal of biofilms of the marine bacterium, C. lytica.

TABLE XXIV Fouling-release data for moisture-curable coatings based on polyAMB and poly(AMB-r-TEGMVE)90-10. C. lytica removal C. lytica removal N. incerta removal N. incerta removal at a water pressure at a water pressure at a water pressure at a water pressure Coating of 10 psi of 20 psi of 10 psi of 20 psi SILASTIC ® T-2 56.6% 68.1% 23.7% 50.6% Coating based on 87.4% 97.0% 34.7%   40% polyAMB Coating based on 85.1% 82.7%   22% 33.9% poly(AMB-r- TEGMVE)90-10

The complete disclosures of all patents, patent applications including provisional patent applications, publications including patent publications and nonpatent publications, and electronically available material (e.g., GenBank amino acid and nucleotide sequence submissions) cited herein are incorporated by reference. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been provided for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The invention is not limited to the exact details shown and described; many variations will be apparent to one skilled in the art and are intended to be included within the invention defined by the claims. 

1. A vinyl ether monomer having the structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl; R₄ is either —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group; and R is a substituted phenyl group.
 2. The monomer of claim 1, wherein R is a mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-substituted phenyl group.
 3. The monomer of claim 1 wherein at least one substituent of the phenyl group contains at least one reactive functional group.
 4. The monomer of claim 3 wherein the reactive functional group comprises a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol; an aldehyde; a double bond; a triple bond; a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary amine; an ester; a ketone; an epoxide; a carboxylic acid; or any combination thereof.
 5. The monomer of claim 3 wherein the reactive functional group comprises an epoxide group, an acrylate-functional group, an alcohol group, or any combination thereof.
 6. The monomer of claim 1 wherein the phenyl group is derived from eugenol, or isoeugenol.
 7. The monomer of claim 1 wherein the phenyl group is derived from a phenolic compound obtained from lignocellulose.
 8. A polymer or copolymer comprising, as a repeating unit, the structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are each independently H or alkyl; R₄ is either —O—R₁₀— or absent; R₁₀ is divalent organic group; and R is a substituted phenyl group.
 9. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8, wherein R is a mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-substituted phenyl group.
 10. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 wherein at least one substituent of the phenyl group contains at least one reactive functional group.
 11. The polymer or copolymer of claim 10 wherein the reactive functional group comprises a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol; an aldehyde; a double bond; a triple bond; a primary, secondary, tertiary or quaternary amine; an ester; a ketone; an epoxide; or a carboxylic acid; or any combination thereof.
 12. The polymer or copolymer of claim 10 wherein the reactive functional group comprises an epoxide group, an acrylate-functional group, or an alcohol group, or any combination thereof.
 13. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 wherein the phenyl group is derived from eugenol, or isoeugenol.
 14. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 comprising, as a repeating unit, the structure:

where R₁, R₂, and R₃ are —H or -alkyl; R₄ is —O-alkylene- or absent; R₅ is either or both of CH₂—CH═CH₂ and/or CH═CH—CH₃.
 15. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 wherein the phenyl group is derived from a phenolic compound obtained from lignocellulose.
 16. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 comprising a polyvinyl ether.
 17. The polymer or copolymer of claim 16 wherein the polyvinyl ether comprises an alkylene vinyl ether as a repeating unit.
 18. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 comprising an epoxidized polyvinyl ether.
 19. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 comprising a repeating unit derived from 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene (AMB).
 20. The polymer or copolymer of claim 19 comprising poly[4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene] (polyAMB).
 21. The copolymer of claim 8 comprising at least one comonomer comprising an isobutyl vinyl ether, a cyclohexyl vinyl ether, a tri(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether, a penta(ethylene glycol) ethyl vinyl ether, or a combination thereof.
 22. The copolymer of claim 8 comprising at least one comonomer comprising an electron deficient vinyl monomer.
 23. The copolymer of claim 22 wherein the electron deficient vinyl monomer comprises maleic anhydride.
 24. The copolymer of 22 produced by free radical polymerization.
 25. The copolymer of claim 22 which is an alternating copolymer.
 26. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 comprising a cross-linked siloxane.
 27. The polymer or copolymer of claim 8 having a polydispersity index of less than 1.5.
 28. A method for making the polymer or copolymer of claim 8 comprising polymerizing the vinyl ether monomer of claim 1 with at least one comonomer under conditions to form a polymer or copolymer.
 29. The method of claim 28 wherein the comonomer comprises a vinyl ether monomer.
 30. 1-(2-(4-allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl acetate (AMEA).
 31. A method for making the compound of claim 30 comprising contacting 4-allyl-2-methoxy-1-(2-(vinyloxy)ethoxy)benzene with acetic acid under conditions and for a time sufficient to yield a functionalized initiator compound comprising 1-(2-(4-allyl-2-methoxyphenoxy)ethoxy)ethyl acetate.
 32. A method for making a polymer comprising contacting a vinyl ether monomer with the compound of claim 30 under conditions to yield an allyl-terminal poly(vinyl ether).
 33. The method of claim 32 wherein the vinyl ether monomer is chloroethyl vinyl ether and the poly(vinyl ether) is poly(2-chlorovinyl ether).
 34. The method of claim 32 wherein the polymer is produced as a result of carbocationic polymerization.
 35. A method for making a block or graft copolymer comprising contacting an allyl-terminal poly(2-chlorovinyl ether) with hydride-terminated poly(dimethylsiloxane) under conditions to yield a poly(2-chloroethyl vinyl ether)-b-poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-poly(2-chloroethyl vinyl ether) block or graft copolymer.
 36. The method of claim 35 further comprising quaternizing the poly(2-chloroethyl vinyl ether)-b-poly(dimethylsiloxane)-b-poly(2-chloroethyl vinyl ether) block or graft copolymer. 